Furthermore, bioactive signals, such as cell-adhesion peptides and growth factors, can be loaded along with cells to help regulate cellular function. Biomaterials can also provide mechanical support against in vivo forces such that the predefined three-dimensional structure is maintained during tissue development. Because the majority of mammalian cell types are anchorage dependent and will die if no cell-adhesion substrate is available, biomaterials provide a cell-adhesion substrate that can deliver cells to specific sites in the body with high loading efficiency. As a result, biomaterials provide a three-dimensional space for the cells to form into new tissues with appropriate structure and function, and also can allow for the delivery of cells and appropriate bioactive factors ( e.g., cell adhesion peptides, growth factors), to desired sites in the body ( 33). In tissue engineering, biomaterials replicate the biologic and mechanical function of the native ECM found in tissues in the body by serving as an artificial ECM. Major advances have been achieved within the last decade on the possible expansion of a variety of primary human cells, with specific techniques that make the use of autologous cells possible for clinical application.įor cell-based tissue engineering, the expanded cells are seeded onto a scaffold synthesized with the appropriate biomaterial. These studies indicated that it should be possible to collect autologous bladder cells from human patients, expand them in culture, and return them to the human donor in sufficient quantities for reconstructive purposes ( 12,13,23–32 ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓). By use of these methods of cell culture, it is now possible to expand a urothelial strain from a single specimen that initially covers a surface area of 1 cm 2 to one covering a surface area of 4202 m 2 (the equivalent area of one football field) within 8 wk ( 12). Several protocols were developed over the last two decades that identified the undifferentiated cells, and kept them undifferentiated during their growth phase ( 12,22–24 ⇓ ⇓ ⇓). For example, urothelial cells could be grown in the laboratory setting in the past, but only with limited expansion. By studying the privileged sites for committed precursor cells in specific organs, as well as exploring the conditions that promote differentiation, one may be able to overcome the obstacles that could lead to cell expansion in vitro. Even when some organs, such as the liver, have a high regenerative capacity in vivo, cell growth and expansion in vitro may be difficult. One of the limitations of applying cell-based regenerative medicine techniques toward organ replacement has been the inherent difficulty of growing specific cell types in large quantities. The use of autologous cells avoids rejection, and thus the deleterious side effects of immunosuppressive medications can be avoided. The most preferred cells to use are autologous cells, where a biopsy of tissue is obtained from the host, the cells are dissociated and expanded in culture, and the expanded cells are implanted into the same host ( 4–21 ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇓). Ideally, both structural and functional tissue replacements will occur with minimal complications. ![]() The source of donor tissue can be heterologous (such as bovine), allogeneic (same species, different individual), or autologous. These cells are either implanted directly into the host or are expanded in culture, attached to a support matrix, and then reimplanted into the host after expansion. When cells are used for tissue engineering, a small piece of donor tissue is dissociated into individual cells. These matrices tend to slowly degrade on implantation and are generally replaced by the ECM proteins that are secreted by the ingrowing cells. Acellular tissue matrices are usually prepared by removing cellular components from tissues via mechanical and chemical manipulation to produce collagen-rich matrices ( 1–4 ⇓ ⇓ ⇓). Tissue engineering strategies generally fall into two categories: acellular matrices, where matrices are used alone and depend on the body’s natural ability to regenerate for proper orientation and direction of new tissue growth, and matrices with cells. As one of the major components of regenerative medicine, tissue engineering follows the principles of cell transplantation, materials science, and engineering toward the development of biologic substitutes that can restore and maintain normal function.
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